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UNITED STATES SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

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FORM  i 10-K

(Mark One)

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For the fiscal year ended  i December 31, 2019

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or

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For the transition period from to

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Commission file number  i 1-13397

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 i INGREDION INCORPORATED

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

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Registrant’s telephone number, including area code ( i 708)  i 551-2600

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Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

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Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None

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Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.  i Yes ☒ No ☐

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Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act. Yes ☐  i No ☒

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.  i Yes ☒ No ☐

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).  i Yes ☒ No ☐

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

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If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). Yes  i ☐ No ☒

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The aggregate market value of the registrant's voting stock held by non-affiliates of the registrant (based upon the per share closing price of $82.49 on the New York Stock Exchange on June 30, 2019, and, for the purpose of this calculation only, the assumption that all of the registrant's directors and executive officers are affiliates) was approximately $ i 5,477,000,000.

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The number of shares outstanding of the registrant's common stock, par value $0.01 per share, as of February 1, 2020, was  i 66,881,850.

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Documents Incorporated by Reference:

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Information required by Part III (Items 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14) of this document is incorporated by reference to certain portions of the registrant’s definitive Proxy Statement to be distributed in connection with its 2020 Annual Meeting of Stockholders, which will be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission within 120 days after December 31, 2019.

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INGREDION INCORPORATED

FORM 10-K

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PART I.

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ITEM 1. BUSINESS

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Our Company

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Ingredion Incorporated (“Ingredion”) is a leading global ingredients solutions provider. We turn corn, tapioca, potatoes, grains, fruits, and vegetables into value-added ingredients and biomaterials for the food, beverage, brewing and other industries. Ingredion was incorporated as a Delaware corporation in 1997 and its common stock is traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol “INGR.”

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For purposes of this report, unless the context otherwise requires, all references herein to the “Company,” “Ingredion,” “we,” “us,” and “our” shall mean Ingredion Incorporated and its consolidated subsidiaries.

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We are principally engaged in the production and sale of starches and sweeteners for a wide range of industries, and are managed geographically on a regional basis. Our operations are classified into four reportable business segments: North America, South America, Asia-Pacific and Europe, Middle East, and Africa (“EMEA”). Our North America segment includes businesses in the U.S., Mexico, and Canada. Our South America segment includes businesses in Brazil, the Southern Cone of South America (which includes Argentina, Peru, Chile, and Uruguay), Colombia, and Ecuador. Our Asia-Pacific segment includes businesses in South Korea, Thailand, China, Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Indonesia, Singapore, the Philippines, Malaysia, India, and Vietnam. Our EMEA segment includes businesses in Pakistan, Germany, the United Kingdom and South Africa.

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We supply a broad range of customers in many diverse industries around the world, including the food, beverage, brewing and other industries, as well as the global animal feed markets.

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Our product lines include starches and sweeteners, animal feed products and edible corn oil. Our starch-based products include both food-grade and industrial starches, and biomaterials. Our sweetener products include glucose syrups, high maltose syrups, high fructose corn syrup, caramel color, dextrose, polyols, maltodextrins, and glucose and syrup solids. Our products are derived primarily from the processing of corn and other starch-based materials, such as tapioca, potato, and rice. We are in the process of expanding our plant-based protein product lines, including pulse-based concentrates, flours and isolates, with $185 million of investments through 2020.

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Our manufacturing process is based on a capital-intensive, two-step process that involves the wet-milling and processing of starch-based materials, primarily corn. During the front-end process, the starch-based materials are steeped in a water-based solution and separated into starch and co-products such as animal feed and corn oil. The starch is then either dried for sale or further processed to make starches, sweeteners and other ingredients that serve the particular needs of various industries.

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We believe our approach to production and service, which focuses on local management and production improvements of our worldwide operations, provides us with a unique understanding of the cultures and product requirements in each of the geographic markets in which we operate, bringing added value to our customers through innovative solutions. At the same time, we believe that our corporate functions allow us to identify synergies and maximize the benefits of our global presence.

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Geographic Scope and Operations

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Our North America segment consists of operations in the U.S., Mexico, and Canada. The region’s facilities include 22 plants producing a wide range of starches, sweeteners, gum acacia, and fruit and vegetable concentrates.

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Our South America segment includes operations in Brazil, Colombia, the Southern Cone of South America, and Ecuador. The segment includes nine plants that produce regular, modified, waxy, and tapioca starches, high fructose and high maltose syrups and syrup solids, dextrins and maltodextrins, dextrose, specialty starches, caramel color, sorbitol, and vegetable adhesives.

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Our Asia-Pacific segment manufactures corn-based products in South Korea, China, and Australia. Also, we manufacture tapioca-based products in Thailand, from which we supply not only our Asia-Pacific segment but the rest of our global network. The region’s facilities include eight plants that produce modified, specialty, regular, waxy, tapioca and rice starches, dextrins, glucose, high maltose syrup, dextrose, high fructose corn syrup, and caramel color.

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Our EMEA segment includes five plants that produce modified and specialty starches, glucose and dextrose in Pakistan, Germany, and the United Kingdom.

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Additionally, we utilize a network of tolling manufacturers in various regions in the production cycle of certain specialty starches. In general, these tolling manufacturers produce certain basic starches for us, and we in turn complete the manufacturing process of starches through our finishing channels.

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We utilize our global network of manufacturing facilities to support key global product lines.

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In general, demand for our products is balanced throughout the year. However, demand for sweeteners in South America is greater in the first and fourth quarters (its summer season) while demand for sweeteners in North America is greater in the second and third quarters. Due to the offsetting impact of these demand trends, we do not experience material seasonal fluctuations in our net sales on a consolidated basis.

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Products

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Our portfolio of products is generally classified into the following categories: Starch Products, Sweetener Products, and Co-products and others. Within these categories, a portion of our products are considered Specialty Ingredients. We describe these three general product categories in more detail below, along with a broader discussion of specialty ingredients within the product portfolio.

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Starch Products: Our starch products represented approximately 46 percent, 46 percent, and 44 percent of our net sales for 2019, 2018 and 2017, respectively. Starches are an important component in a wide range of processed foods, where they are used for adhesion, clouding, dusting, expansion, fat replacement, freshness, gelling, glazing, mouthfeel, stabilization, and texture. Cornstarch is sold to cornstarch packers for sale to consumers. Starches are also used in paper production to create a smooth surface for printed communications and to improve strength in recycled papers. Specialty starches are used for enhanced drainage, fiber retention, oil and grease resistance, improved printability, and biochemical oxygen demand control. The textile industry uses starches and specialty starches for sizing (abrasion resistance) to provide size and finishes for manufactured products. Industrial starches are used in the production of construction materials, textiles, adhesives, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics, as well as in mining, water filtration, and oil and gas drilling. Specialty starches are used for biomaterial applications including biodegradable plastics, fabric softeners and detergents, hair and skin care applications, dusting powders for surgical gloves, and in the production of glass fiber and insulation.

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Sweetener Products: Our sweetener products represented approximately 36 percent, 36 percent, and 38 percent of our net sales for 2019, 2018 and 2017, respectively.  Sweeteners include products such as glucose syrups, high maltose syrup, high fructose corn syrup, dextrose, polyols, maltrodextrin, glucose syrup solids, and non-GMO (genetically modified organism) syrups. Our sweeteners are used in a wide variety of food and beverage products, such as baked goods, snack foods, canned fruits, condiments, candy and other sweets, dairy products, ice cream, jams and jellies, prepared mixes, table syrups, soft drinks, fruit-flavored drinks, beer, and many others. These sweetener products also offer functionality in addition to sweetness, such as texture, body and viscosity; help control freezing points, crystallization, and browning; add humectancy (ability to add moisture) and flavor; and act as binders. Our high maltose syrups speed the fermentation process, allowing brewers to increase capacity without adding capital. Dextrose has a wide range of applications in the food and confection industries, in solutions for intravenous (“IV”) and other pharmaceutical applications, and numerous industrial applications like wallboard, biodegradable surface agents, and moisture control agents. Our specialty sweeteners provide affordable, natural, reduced calorie and sugar-free solutions for our customers.

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Co-products and others: Co-products and others accounted for approximately 18 percent of our net sales for each of 2019, 2018 and 2017. Refined corn oil (from germ) is sold to packers of cooking oil and to producers of margarine,

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salad dressings, shortening, mayonnaise, and other foods. Corn gluten feed is sold as animal feed. Corn gluten meal is sold as high-protein feed for chickens, pet food, and aquaculture. Our other products include fruit and vegetable products, such as concentrates, purees, and essences, as well as pulse proteins and hydrocolloids systems and blends.

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Specialty Ingredients within the product portfolio: We consider certain of our products to be specialty ingredients. Specialty ingredients comprised approximately 30 percent of our net sales for 2019, up from 29 percent and 28 percent in 2018 and 2017, respectively. These ingredients deliver more functionality than our other products and add additional customer value. Our specialty ingredients are aligned with growing market and consumer trends such as health and wellness, clean-label, simple ingredients, affordability, indulgence, and sustainability.

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We drive growth for our specialty ingredients portfolio by leveraging the following five growth platforms: Starch-based Texturizers, Clean and Simple Ingredients, Sugar Reduction and Specialty Sweeteners, Food Systems, and Plant-based Proteins.

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Starch-based Texturizers: Ingredients that support the structure and texture behind great eating experiences.  Products are made from corn, potato, rice, tapioca and offer a multitude of textures, functionalities, and stability during processing and shelf life to a broad range of food products. 

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Clean and Simple Ingredients: Functional ingredients that address the clean label trend for finished products made with shorter lists of highly consumer-accepted food ingredients. From food and beverages to pet food and personal care, consumers are looking for clean, simple, natural, and authentic products that they can identify and trust.  The broad portfolio of clean label ingredients includes: starches, sweeteners, flours, nutrition ingredients, emulsifiers and fruit and vegetable concentrates.

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Sugar Reduction and Specialty Sweeteners: Solutions that provide sweetness and functional replacement for sugar in reduced-calorie and sugar-free foods and beverages without sacrificing quality and consistency. These specialty ingredients are made from a variety of GMO and non-GMO raw material bases and include ingredients, such as naturally based stevia sweeteners, polyols, dextrose and allulose, a rare sugar. 

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Food Systems: Deliver proven ingredient combinations to accelerate product development enabling customers to get to market faster.  A Food System can address a world of functional challenges, including: mouthfeel/texture for dairy and alternative dairy products, thickening of sauces, stabilization in high-protein drinks, gelling for fruit fillings, film formers for candy shells, foaming and frothing, adding soluble fibers and nutritional ingredients, adhering particles to breads and emulsification of flavors.

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Plant-based Proteins: Specialty pulse-based protein ingredients that bring solutions to the world made from lentils, chickpeas, fava beans and peas.  They add protein, dietary fiber, micronutrients and texture to food and beverages.

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Competition

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The starch and sweetener industry is highly competitive. Many of our products are viewed as basic ingredients that compete with virtually identical products and derivatives manufactured by other companies in the industry. The U.S. is a highly competitive market with operations by other starch processors, several of which are divisions of larger enterprises. Some of these competitors, unlike us, have vertically integrated their starch processing and other operations. Competitors include ADM Corn Processing Division (“ADM,” a division of Archer-Daniels-Midland Company), Cargill, Inc. (“Cargill”), Tate & Lyle Ingredients Americas, Inc. (“Tate & Lyle”), and several others. Our operations in Mexico and Canada face competition from U.S. imports and local producers including ALMEX, a Mexican joint venture between ADM and Tate & Lyle. In South America, Cargill has starch processing operations in Brazil and Argentina. We also face competition from Roquette Frères S.A. (“Roquette”) primarily in our North America region.

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Many smaller local corn and tapioca refiners also operate in many of our markets. Competition within our markets is largely based on price, quality, and product availability.

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Several of our products also compete with products made from raw materials other than corn. High fructose corn syrup and monohydrate dextrose compete principally with cane and beet sugar products. Co-products such as corn oil and gluten meal compete with products of the corn dry milling industry and with soybean oil, soybean meal, and other products. Fluctuations in prices of these competing products may affect prices of, and profits derived from, our products.

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Customers

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We supply a broad range of customers in over 60 industries worldwide. The following table provides the approximate percentage of total net sales by industry for each of our industries served in 2019:

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No customer accounted for 10 percent or more of our net sales in 2019, 2018, or 2017.

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Raw Materials

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Corn (primarily yellow dent) is the primary basic raw material we use to produce starches and sweeteners. The supply of corn in the U.S. has been, and is anticipated to continue to be, adequate for our domestic needs. The price of corn, which is determined by reference to prices on the Chicago Board of Trade, fluctuates as a result of various factors including: farmers’ planting decisions, climate, domestic and foreign government policies (including those related to the production of ethanol), livestock feeding, shortages or surpluses of world grain supplies, and trade agreements. We use starch from potato processors as the primary raw material to manufacture ingredients derived from potato-based starches. We also use tapioca, gum, rice, and sugar as raw materials.

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Corn is also grown in other areas of the world, including China, Brazil, Europe, Argentina, Mexico, South Africa, Canada, Pakistan, and Australia. Our subsidiaries outside the U.S. utilize both local supplies of corn and corn imported from other geographic areas, including the U.S. The supply of corn for these subsidiaries is also generally expected to be adequate for our needs. Corn prices for our non-U.S. affiliates generally fluctuate as a result of the same factors that affect U.S. corn prices.

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We also utilize specialty grains such as waxy and high amylose corn in our operations. In general, the planning cycle for our specialty grain sourcing begins three years in advance of the anticipated delivery of the specialty corn since the necessary seed must be grown in the season prior to grain contracting. In order to secure these specialty grains at the time of our anticipated needs, we contract with certain farmers to grow the specialty corn approximately two years in advance of delivery. These specialty grains have a higher cost due to their more limited supply and require longer planning cycles to mitigate the risk of supply shortages.

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Due to the competitive nature of our industry and the availability of substitute products not produced from corn, such as sugar from cane or beets, end-product prices may not necessarily fluctuate in a manner that correlates to raw material costs of corn.

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We follow a policy of hedging our exposure to commodity price fluctuations with commodities futures and options contracts primarily for certain of our North American corn purchases. We use derivative hedging contracts to protect the gross margin of our firm-priced business in North America. Other business may or may not be hedged at any given time based on management’s judgment as to the need to fix the costs of our raw materials to protect our profitability.

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Outside of North America, we generally enter into short-term commercial sales contracts and adjust our selling prices based upon the local raw material costs. See Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk, in the section entitled “Commodity Costs” for additional information.

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Other raw materials used in our manufacturing processes include starch from potato processors as the primary raw material to manufacture ingredients derived from potato-based starches. In addition, we use tapioca, particularly in certain of our production processes in the Asia-Pacific region. While the price of tapioca fluctuates from time-to-time as a result of growing conditions, the supply of tapioca has been, and is anticipated to continue to be, adequate for our production needs in the various markets in which we operate. In addition to corn, potato, and tapioca, we use pulses, gum, rice, and sugar as raw materials, among others.

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Research and Development

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We have a global network of more than 400 scientists working in 30 Ingredion Idea Labs® innovation centers with headquarters in Bridgewater, New Jersey. Activities at Bridgewater include plant science and physical, chemical and biochemical modifications to food formulations, food sensory evaluation, and development of non-food applications such as starch-based biopolymers. In addition, we have product application technology centers that direct our product development teams worldwide to create product application solutions to better serve the ingredient needs of our customers. Product development activity is focused on developing product applications for identified customer and market needs. Through this approach, we have developed value-added products for use by customers in various industries. We usually collaborate with customers to develop the desired product application either in the customers’ facilities, our technical service laboratories, or on a contract basis. These efforts are supported by our marketing, product technology, and technology support staff. R&D expense was approximately $44 million in 2019, $46 million in 2018, and $43 million in 2017. Our R&D expense represents investment in new product development and innovation.  Our R&D is further supplemented by technical support services to assist our customers with application development and co-creation.

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Sales and Distribution

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Our salaried sales personnel, who are generally dedicated to customers in a geographic region, sell our products directly to manufacturers and distributors. In addition, we have staff that provide technical support to our sales personnel on an industry basis. We generally contract with trucking companies to deliver our bulk products to customer destinations. In North America, we generally use trucks to ship to nearby customers. For those customers located considerable distances from our plants, we use either rail or a combination of railcars and trucks to deliver our products. We generally lease railcars for terms of three to ten years.

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Patents, Trademarks, and Technical License Agreements

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We own more than 750 patents and patents pending, which relate to a variety of products and processes, and a number of established trademarks under which we market our products. We also have the right to use other patents and trademarks pursuant to patent and trademark licenses. We do not believe that any individual patent or trademark is material to our business. There is no currently pending challenge to the use or registration of any of our patents or trademarks that would have a material adverse impact on us or our results of operations if decided against us.

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Employees

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As of December 31, 2019, we had approximately 11,000 employees, of whom approximately 2,600 were located in the U.S. Approximately 31 percent of our U.S. employees and 36 percent of our non-U.S. employees are unionized.

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Government Regulation and Environmental Matters

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As a manufacturer and marketer of food items and items for use in the pharmaceutical industry, our operations and the use of many of our products are subject to various federal, state, foreign and local statutes and regulations, including the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and the Occupational Safety and Health Act. We and many of our products are also subject to regulation by various government agencies, including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Among

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other things, applicable regulations prescribe requirements and establish standards for product quality, purity, and labeling. Failure to comply with one or more regulatory requirements can result in a variety of sanctions, including monetary fines. No such fines of a material nature were imposed on us in 2019. We may also be required to comply with federal, state, foreign, and local laws regulating food handling and storage. We believe these laws and regulations have not negatively affected our competitive position.

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Our operations are also subject to various federal, state, foreign, and local laws and regulations with respect to environmental matters, including air and water quality, and other regulations intended to protect public health and the environment. We operate industrial boilers that fire natural gas, coal, or biofuels to operate our manufacturing facilities and they, along with product dryers, are our primary source of greenhouse gas emissions. In Argentina, we are in discussions with local regulators addressing our possible undertaking to conduct studies of possible environmental remediation programs at our Chacabuco plant. We are unable to predict the outcome of these discussions, but do not believe that the ultimate cost of remediation will be material. Based on current laws and regulations and the enforcement and interpretations thereof, we do not expect that the costs of future environmental compliance will be a material expense, although there can be no assurance that we will remain in compliance or that the costs of remaining in compliance will not have a material adverse effect on our future financial condition and results of operations.

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During 2019, we spent approximately $12 million for environmental control and wastewater treatment equipment to be incorporated into existing facilities and in planned construction projects. We currently anticipate that we will invest approximately $10 million for environmental facilities and programs in each of 2020 and 2021.

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Other

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Our Internet address is www.ingredion.com. We make available, free of charge through our Internet website, our annual report on Form 10-K, quarterly reports on Form 10-Q, current reports on Form 8-K, and amendments to those reports filed or furnished pursuant to Section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended. These reports are made available as soon as reasonably practicable after they are electronically filed with or furnished to the Securities and Exchange Commission. Our corporate governance guidelines, board committee charters and code of ethics are posted on our website, the address of which is www.ingredion.com, and each is available in print to any shareholder upon request in writing to Ingredion Incorporated, 5 Westbrook Corporate Center, Westchester, Illinois 60154, Attention: Corporate Secretary. The contents of our website are not incorporated by reference into this report.

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Information about our Executive Officers

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Set forth below, as of January 31, 2020, are the names and ages of all of our executive officers, indicating their positions and offices with the Company and other business experience. Our executive officers are elected annually by the Board to serve until the next annual election of officers and until their respective successors have been elected and have qualified, or until their earlier resignation or removal by the Board.

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ITEM 1A. RISK FACTORS

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Our business and assets are subject to varying degrees of risk and uncertainty. The following are factors that we believe could cause our actual results to differ materially from expected and historical results. Additional risks that are currently unknown to us may also impair our business or adversely affect our financial condition or results of operations. In addition, forward-looking statements within the meaning of the federal securities laws that are contained in this Form 10-K or in our other filings or statements may be subject to the risks described below as well as other risks and uncertainties. See the cautionary notice regarding forward-looking statements in Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

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Changes in consumer preferences and perceptions may lessen the demand for our products, which could reduce our sales and profitability and harm our business.

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Food products are often affected by changes in consumer tastes, national, regional and local economic conditions and demographic trends. For instance, changes in prevailing health or dietary preferences causing consumers to avoid food products containing sweetener products, including high fructose corn syrup, in favor of foods that are perceived as being more healthy, could reduce our sales and profitability, and such reductions could be material. Increasing concern among consumers, public health professionals and government agencies about the potential health concerns associated with obesity and inactive lifestyles (reflected, for instance, in taxes designed to combat obesity, which have been imposed recently in North America) represent a significant challenge to some of our customers, including those engaged in the food and soft drink industries.

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Current economic conditions may adversely impact demand for our products, reduce access to credit and cause our customers and others with whom we do business to suffer financial hardship, all of which could adversely impact our business, results of operations, financial condition, and cash flows.

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Economic conditions in South America, the European Union, and many other countries and regions in which we do business have experienced various levels of weakness over the last few years, and may remain challenging for the foreseeable future. General business and economic conditions that could affect us include barriers to trade (including as a result of Brexit, tariffs, duties, and border taxes, among other factors), the strength of the economies in which we operate, unemployment, inflation, and fluctuations in debt markets. While currently these conditions have not impaired our ability to access credit markets and finance our operations, there can be no assurance that there will not be a further deterioration in the financial markets.

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There could be a number of other effects from these economic developments on our business, including reduced consumer demand for products, pressure to extend our customers’ payment terms, insolvency of our customers resulting in increased provisions for credit losses, decreased customer demand, including order delays or cancellations, and counterparty failures negatively impacting our operations.

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In connection with our defined benefit pension plans, adverse changes in investment returns earned on pension assets and discount rates used to calculate pension and related liabilities or changes in required pension funding levels may have an unfavorable impact on future pension expenses and cash flows.

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In addition, volatile worldwide economic conditions and market instability may make it difficult for us, our customers, and our suppliers to accurately forecast future product demand trends, which could cause us to produce excess products that could increase our inventory carrying costs. Alternatively, this forecasting difficulty could cause a shortage of products that could result in an inability to satisfy demand for our products.

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Our reliance on certain industries for a significant portion of our sales could have a material adverse effect on our business.

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Approximately 54 percent of our 2019 sales were made to companies engaged in the food industry and approximately 10 percent were made to companies in the beverage industry. Additionally, sales to the animal nutrition and brewing industry represented approximately 9 percent and approximately 8

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percent, respectively, of our 2019 net sales. If our food customers, beverage customers, animal feed customers, or brewing industry customers were to substantially decrease their purchases, our business might be materially adversely affected.

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The uncertainty of acceptance of products developed through biotechnology could affect our profitability.

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The commercial success of agricultural products developed through biotechnology, including genetically modified corn, depends in part on public acceptance of their development, cultivation, distribution and consumption. Public attitudes can be influenced by claims that genetically modified products are unsafe for consumption or that they pose unknown risks to the environment, even if such claims are not based on scientific studies. These public attitudes can influence regulatory and legislative decisions about biotechnology. The sale of our products, which may contain genetically modified corn, could be delayed or impeded because of adverse public perception regarding the safety of our products and the potential effects of these products on human health, the environment, and animals.

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Our future growth could be negatively impacted if we fail to introduce sufficient new products and services.

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While we do not believe that any individual patent or trademark is material to our business, a portion of our growth comes from innovation in products, processes, and services. We cannot guarantee that our research and development efforts will result in new products and services at a rate or of a quality sufficient to meet expectations.

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Government policies and regulations could adversely affect our operating results.

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Our operating results could be affected by changes in trade, monetary and fiscal policies, laws and regulations, and other activities of the U.S. and foreign governments, agencies, and similar organizations. These conditions include but are not limited to changes in a country’s or region’s economic or political conditions, modification or termination of trade agreements or treaties promoting free trade, creation of new trade agreements or treaties, trade regulations affecting production, pricing and marketing of products, local labor conditions and regulations, reduced protection of intellectual property rights, changes in the regulatory or legal environment, restrictions on currency exchange activities, currency exchange rate fluctuations, burdensome taxes and tariffs, and other trade barriers. International risks and uncertainties, including changing social and economic conditions as well as terrorism, political hostilities, and war, could limit our ability to transact business in these markets and could adversely affect our revenues and operating results.

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Our operations could be adversely affected by actions taken in connection with cross-border disputes by the governments of countries in which we conduct business.

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We operate in a highly competitive environment and it may be difficult to preserve operating margins and maintain market share.

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We operate in a highly competitive environment. Competition in markets in which we compete is largely based on price, quality, and product availability. Many of our products compete with virtually identical or similar products manufactured by other companies in the starch and sweetener industry. In the U.S., our competitors include divisions of larger enterprises that have greater financial resources than we do. Some of these competitors, unlike us, have vertically integrated their corn refining and other operations. Many of our products also compete with products made from raw materials other than corn, including cane and beet sugar. Fluctuation in prices of these competing products may affect prices of, and profits derived from, our products. In addition, government programs supporting sugar prices indirectly impact the price of corn sweeteners, especially high fructose corn syrup. Furthermore, co-products such as corn oil and gluten meal compete with products of the corn dry milling industry and with soybean oil, soybean meal, and other products, the price of some of which may be affected by government programs such as tariffs or quotas.

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Due to market volatility, we cannot assure that we can adequately pass potential increases in the cost of corn and other raw materials on to customers through product price increases or purchase quantities of corn and other raw materials at prices sufficient to sustain or increase our profitability.

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The price and availability of corn and other raw materials is influenced by economic and industry conditions, including supply and demand factors such as crop disease and severe weather conditions, such as drought, floods, or frost, that are difficult to anticipate and which we cannot control.

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Raw material and energy price fluctuations, and supply interruptions and shortages could adversely affect our results of operations.

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Our finished products are made primarily from corn. Purchased corn and other raw material costs account for between 40 percent and 65 percent of finished product costs. Some of our products are based upon specific varieties of corn that are produced in significantly less volumes than yellow dent corn. These specialty grains are higher-cost due to their more limited supply and require planning cycles of up to three years in order for us to receive our desired amounts of specialty corn. We also manufacture certain starch-based products from potatoes. Our current potato starch requirements constitute a material portion of the total available North American supply. It is possible that, in the long term, continued growth in demand for potato starch-based ingredients and new product development could result in capacity constraints. Also, we utilize tapioca in the manufacturing of starch products primarily in Thailand, as well as pulses, gum, rice and other raw materials around the world. A significant supply disruption or sharp increase in any of these raw material prices that we are unable to recover through pricing increases to our customers could have an adverse impact on our growth and profitability.

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Energy costs represent approximately 9 percent of our finished product costs. We use energy primarily to create steam required for our production processes and to dry products. We consume coal, natural gas, electricity, wood, and fuel oil to generate energy.

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The market prices for our raw materials may vary considerably depending on supply and demand, world economies, trade agreements and tariffs, and other factors. We purchase these commodities based on our anticipated usage and future outlook for these costs. We cannot assure that we will be able to purchase these commodities at prices that we can adequately pass on to customers to sustain or increase profitability.

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In North America, we sell a large portion of our finished products derived from corn at firm prices established in supply contracts typically lasting for periods of up to one year. In order to minimize the effect of volatility in the cost of corn related to these firm-priced supply contracts, we enter into corn futures and options contracts, or take other hedging positions in the corn futures market. These derivative contracts typically mature within one year. At expiration, we settle the derivative contracts at a net amount equal to the difference between the then-current price of the commodity and the derivative contract price. The fluctuations in the fair value of these hedging instruments may adversely affect our cash flow. We fund any unrealized losses or receive cash for any unrealized gains on futures contracts on a daily basis. While the corn futures contracts or hedging positions are intended to minimize the effect of volatility of corn costs on operating profits, the hedging activity can result in losses, some of which may be material.

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An inability to contain costs could adversely affect our future profitability and growth.

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Our future profitability and growth depends on our ability to contain operating costs and per unit product costs and to maintain and implement effective cost control programs, while at the same time maintaining competitive pricing and superior quality products, customer service, and support. Our ability to maintain a competitive cost structure depends on continued containment of manufacturing, delivery, freight, and administrative costs, as well as the implementation of cost-effective purchasing programs for raw materials, energy, and related manufacturing requirements.

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If we are unable to contain our operating costs and maintain the productivity and reliability of our production facilities, our profitability and growth could be adversely affected.

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Increased interest rates could increase our borrowing costs.

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We may issue debt securities to finance acquisitions, capital expenditures, and working capital, or for other general corporate purposes. An increase in interest rates in the general economy could result in an increase in our borrowing costs for these financings, as well as under any existing debt that bears interest at an unhedged floating rate.

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Climate change and future costs of environmental compliance may be material.

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Our business could be affected in the future by national and global regulation or taxation of greenhouse gas emissions, as well as the potential effects of climate change.  Changes in precipitation extremes, droughts and water availability have the potential to impact Ingredion's agricultural supply as well as the availability of water for our manufacturing operations. Globally, a number of countries have instituted or are considering climate change legislation and regulations. Ingredion continues to assess the impact of climate change, regulatory pressures and changing consumer behaviors on our business strategy.  It is difficult at this time to estimate the likelihood of passage or predict the potential impact of any additional legislation. Potential consequences could include increased energy, transportation, and raw materials costs, and we may be required to make additional investments in our facilities and equipment.  

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We may not successfully identify and complete acquisitions or strategic alliances on favorable terms or achieve anticipated synergies relating to any acquisitions or alliances, and such acquisitions could result in unforeseen operating difficulties and expenditures and require significant management resources.

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We regularly review potential acquisitions of complementary businesses, technologies, services, or products, as well as potential strategic alliances. We may be unable to find suitable acquisition candidates or appropriate partners with which to form partnerships or strategic alliances. Even if we identify appropriate acquisition or alliance candidates, we may be unable to complete such acquisitions or alliances on favorable terms, if at all. In addition, the process of integrating an acquired business, technology, service, or product into our existing business and operations may result in unforeseen operating difficulties and expenditures. Integration of an acquired company also may require significant management resources that otherwise would be available for ongoing development of our business. Moreover, we may not realize the anticipated benefits of any acquisition or strategic alliance, and such transactions may not generate anticipated financial results. Future acquisitions could also require us to issue equity securities, incur debt, assume contingent liabilities, or amortize expenses related to intangible assets, any of which could harm our business.

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Operating difficulties at our manufacturing plants could adversely affect our operating results.

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Producing starches and sweeteners through corn refining is a capital intensive industry. We have 44 plants and have preventive maintenance and de-bottlenecking programs designed to maintain and improve grind capacity and facility reliability. If we encounter operating difficulties at a plant for an extended period of time or start-up problems with any capital improvement projects, we may not be able to meet a portion of sales order commitments and could incur significantly higher operating expenses, both of which could adversely affect our operating results. We also use boilers to generate steam required in our production processes. An event that impaired the operation of a boiler for an extended period of time could have a significant adverse effect on the operations of any plant in which such event occurred.

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Also, we are subject to risks related to such matters as product safety and quality; compliance with environmental, health and safety and food safety regulations; and customer product liability claims. The liabilities that could result from these risks may not always be covered by, or could exceed the limits of, our insurance coverage related to product liability and food safety matters. In addition, negative publicity caused by product liability and food safety matters may damage our reputation. The occurrence of any of the matters described above could adversely affect our revenues and operating results.

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We operate a multinational business subject to the economic, political, and other risks inherent in operating in foreign countries and with foreign currencies.

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We have operated in foreign countries and with foreign currencies for many years. Our results are subject to foreign currency exchange fluctuations. Our operations are subject to political, economic, and other risks. There has been

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and continues to be significant political uncertainty in some countries in which we operate. Economic changes, terrorist activity, and political unrest may result in business interruption or decreased demand for our products. Protectionist trade measures and import and export licensing requirements could also adversely affect our results of operations. Our success will depend in part on our ability to manage continued global political and economic uncertainty.

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We primarily sell products derived from world commodities. Historically, we have been able to adjust local prices relatively quickly to offset the effect of local currency devaluations versus the U.S. dollar, although we cannot guarantee our ability to do this in the future. For example, due to pricing controls on many consumer products imposed in the recent past by the Argentine government, it takes longer than it had previously taken to achieve pricing improvement in response to currency devaluations versus the U.S. dollar in that country. The anticipated strength in the U.S. dollar may continue to provide some challenges, as it could take an extended period of time to fully recapture the impact of foreign currency devaluations versus the U.S. dollar, particularly in South America.

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We may hedge transactions that are denominated in a currency other than the currency of the operating unit entering into the underlying transaction. We are subject to the risks normally attendant to such hedging activities.

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Our information technology systems, processes, and sites may suffer interruptions, security breaches, or failures which may affect our ability to conduct our business.

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Our operations rely on certain key information technology systems, which are dependent on services provided by third parties, provide critical data connectivity, information, and services for internal and external users. These interactions include, but are not limited to: ordering and managing materials from suppliers, risk management activities, converting raw materials to finished products, inventory management, shipping products to customers, processing transactions, summarizing and reporting results of operations, human resources benefits and payroll management, complying with regulatory, legal and tax requirements, and other processes necessary to manage our business. Increased information technology security and social engineering threats and more sophisticated computer crime, including advanced persistent threats, pose potential risks to the security of our information technology systems, networks and services, as well as the confidentiality, availability and integrity of our third-party and employee data.  We have put in place security measures to protect ourselves against cyber-based attacks and disaster recovery plans for our critical systems. However, if our information technology systems are breached, damaged, or cease to function properly due to any number of causes, such as catastrophic events, power outages, security breaches, or cyber-based attacks, and if our disaster recovery plans do not effectively mitigate the risks on a timely basis, we may encounter significant disruptions that could interrupt our ability to manage our operations, cause loss of valuable data and actual or threatened legal actions, and cause us to suffer damage to our reputation, all of which may adversely impact our revenues, operating results, and financial condition.  Our recent malware incident which lasted from October 2019 to December 2019 is one example of this type of risk, although this particular incident did not result in any material impact to our revenues, operating results, or financial condition.

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The costs to address the foregoing security problems and security vulnerabilities before or after a cyber incident could be significant. Remediation efforts may not be successful and could result in interruptions, delays or cessation of service and loss of existing or potential customers that may impede our sales, manufacturing or other critical functions. Breaches of our security measures and the unapproved dissemination of proprietary information or sensitive or confidential data about us or our customers or other third parties could expose us, our customers or other third parties affected to a risk of loss or misuse of this information, result in regulatory enforcement, litigation and potential liability for us, damage our brand and reputation or otherwise harm our business. We rely in certain limited capacities on third-party data management providers and other vendors whose possible security problems and security vulnerabilities may have similar effects on us.

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Our profitability could be negatively impacted if we fail to maintain satisfactory labor relations.

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As of December 31, 2019, approximately 31 percent of our U.S. employees and 36 percent of our non-U.S. employees were members of unions. Strikes, lockouts, or other work stoppages or slowdowns involving our unionized employees could have a material adverse effect on us.

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Natural disasters, war, acts and threats of terrorism, pandemics, and other significant events could negatively impact our business.

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The economies of any countries in which we sell or manufacture products or purchase raw materials could be affected by natural disasters. Such natural disasters could include, among others, earthquakes, floods, or severe weather; war, acts of war, or terrorism; or the outbreak of an epidemic or pandemic; such as the ongoing coronavirus outbreak emanating from China at the beginning of 2020. Any such natural disaster could result in asset write-offs, decreased sales and overall reduced cash flows.

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The recognition of impairment charges on goodwill or long-lived assets could adversely impact our future financial position and results of operations.

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We have $1.2 billion of total intangible assets as of December 31, 2019, consisting of $801 million of goodwill and $437 million of other intangible assets, which constitute 13 percent and 7 percent, respectively, of our total assets as of such date. Additionally, we have $2.6 billion of long-lived assets, or 44 percent of our total assets, as of December 31, 2019.

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We perform an annual impairment assessment for goodwill and our indefinite-lived intangible assets, and as necessary, for other long-lived assets. If the results of such assessments were to show that the fair value of these assets were less than the carrying values, we could be required to recognize a charge for impairment of goodwill or long-lived assets, and the amount of the impairment charge could be material. We continue to monitor our reporting units in struggling economies and recent acquisitions for challenges in these businesses that may negatively impact the fair value of these reporting units.

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The future occurrence of a potential indicator of impairment, such as a significant adverse change in the business climate that would require a change in our assumptions or strategic decisions made in response to economic or competitive conditions, could require us to perform an assessment prior to the next required assessment date of July 1, 2020.

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Changes in our tax rates or exposure to additional income tax liabilities could impact our profitability.

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We are subject to income taxes in the U.S. and in various other foreign jurisdictions. Our effective tax rates could be adversely affected by changes in the mix of earnings by jurisdiction, changes in tax laws, or tax rates changes in the valuation of deferred tax assets and liabilities and material adjustments from tax audits.

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The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (“TCJA”), which was enacted in December 2017, significantly altered existing U.S. tax law and includes numerous and complex provisions that substantially affect our business. The U.S. Treasury Department and the Internal Revenue Service continue to interpret and issue guidance on provisions of the TCJA that could differ from the way in which we interpret some of the provisions.  Consequently, we may make adjustments to our provision for income taxes based on differences in interpretation in the periods in which guidance is issued.

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Significant changes in the tax laws of the U.S. and numerous foreign jurisdictions in which we do business could result from the base erosion and profit shifting (“BEPS”) project undertaken by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (“OECD”). An OECD-led coalition of 44 countries is contemplating changes to long-standing international tax norms that determine each country’s right to tax cross-border transactions. These contemplated changes, as adopted by countries in which we do business, could increase tax uncertainty and the risk of double taxation, thereby adversely affecting our provision for income taxes.

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The recoverability of our deferred tax assets, which are predominantly in Brazil, Canada, Germany, Mexico, and the U.S., is dependent upon our ability to generate future taxable income in these jurisdictions. In addition, the amount of income taxes we pay is subject to ongoing audits in various jurisdictions and a material assessment by a governing tax authority could affect our profitability and cash flows.

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We may not have access to the funds required for future growth and expansion.

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We may need additional funds to grow and expand our operations. We expect to fund our capital expenditures from operating cash flow to the extent we are able to do so. If our operating cash flow is insufficient to fund our capital expenditures, we may either reduce our capital expenditures or utilize our general credit facilities. For further strategic growth through mergers or acquisitions, we may also seek to generate additional liquidity through the sale of debt or equity securities in private or public markets or through the sale of assets. We cannot provide any assurance that our cash flows from operations will be sufficient to fund anticipated capital expenditures or that we will be able to obtain additional funds from financial markets or from the sale of assets at terms favorable to us. If we are unable to generate sufficient cash flows or raise sufficient additional funds to cover our capital expenditures or other strategic growth opportunities, we may not be able to achieve our desired operating efficiencies and expansion plans, which may adversely impact our competitiveness and, therefore, our results of operations. Our working capital requirements, including margin requirements on open positions on futures exchanges, are directly affected by the price of corn and other agricultural commodities, which may fluctuate significantly and change quickly.

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Volatility in the stock market, fluctuations in quarterly operating results, and other factors could adversely affect the market price of our common stock.

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The market price for our common stock may be significantly affected by factors such as our announcement of new products or services or such announcements by our competitors; technological innovation by us, our competitors or other vendors; quarterly variations in our operating results or the operating results of our competitors; general conditions in our or our customers’ markets; and changes in earnings estimates by analysts or reported results that vary materially from such estimates. In addition, the stock market has experienced significant price fluctuations that have affected the market prices of equity securities of many companies that have been unrelated to the operating performance of any individual company.

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No assurance can be given that we will continue to pay dividends, or as to the amount of any dividend we pay.

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The payment of dividends, as well as the amount of any dividends, is at the discretion of our Board of Directors and will be subject to our financial results and the availability of statutory surplus funds to pay dividends.

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Our profitability may be affected by other factors beyond our control.

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Our operating income and ability to increase profitability depend to a large extent upon our ability to price finished products at a level that will cover manufacturing and raw material costs and provide an acceptable profit margin. Our ability to maintain appropriate price levels is determined by a number of factors largely beyond our control, such as aggregate industry supply and market demand, which may vary from time to time, and the economic conditions of the geographic regions in which we conduct our operations.

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ITEM 1B. UNRESOLVED STAFF COMMENTS

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None.

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ITEM 3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS

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The Company’s subsidiary, National Starch and Chemical (Thailand) Co. Ltd., self-reported to the Rayong Provincial Department of Industry of the Ministry of Industry (the “DIW”) an administrative error in registering one of its waste transporters in Thailand. The DIW notified National Starch and Chemical (Thailand) Co. Ltd. of failure to comply with Section 8 (5) of the Factory Act in connection with the waste transporter and, in May 2019, imposed fines on a per shipment basis totaling THB 3,330,000, or approximately $107,000. There was no assertion by the DIW or the Ministry of Industry that any harm had been caused to the environment. The fines were paid in May 2019 and this administrative error is not expected to reoccur.

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We are currently subject to claims and suits arising in the ordinary course of business, including labor matters, certain environmental proceedings, and other commercial claims.  We also routinely receive inquiries from regulators and other government authorities relating to various aspects of our business, including with respect to compliance with laws and regulations relating to the environment, and at any given time, we have matters at various stages of resolution with the applicable governmental authorities. The outcomes of these matters are not within our complete control and may not be known for prolonged periods of time. We do not believe that the results of currently known legal proceedings and inquires will be material to us. There can be no assurance, however, that such claims, suits or investigations or those arising in the future, whether taken individually or in the aggregate, will not have a material adverse effect on our financial condition or results of operations.

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ITEM 4. MINE SAFETY DISCLOSURES

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Not applicable.

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PART II

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ITEM 5. MARKET FOR REGISTRANT’S COMMON EQUITY, RELATED STOCKHOLDER MATTERS AND ISSUER PURCHASES OF EQUITY SECURITIES

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Trading: Shares of our common stock are traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol “INGR.”

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Holders: The number of holders of record of our common stock was 3,633 at January 31, 2020.

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Dividends: We have a history of paying quarterly dividends. The amount and timing of the dividend payment, if any, is based on a number of factors including estimated earnings, financial position and cash flow. The payment of a dividend, as well as the amount of any dividend, is solely at the discretion of our Board of Directors. Future dividend payments will be subject to our financial results and the availability of funds and statutory surplus to pay dividends.

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Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities: The following table summarizes information with respect to our purchases of our common stock during the fourth quarter of 2019.

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On December 12, 2014, the Board of Directors authorized a stock repurchase program permitting us to purchase up to 5.0 million of our outstanding shares of common stock from January 1, 2015, through December 31, 2019. On October 22, 2018, the Board of Directors authorized a new stock repurchase program permitting us to purchase up to an additional 8.0 million of our outstanding shares of common stock from November 5, 2018 through December 31, 2023.  At December 31, 2019, we have 5.9 million shares available for repurchase under the stock repurchase programs.

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ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

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Overview

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We are a major supplier of high-quality food and industrial ingredient solutions to customers around the world. We have 44 manufacturing plants located in North America, South America, Asia-Pacific and Europe, the Middle East and Africa (“EMEA”), and we manage and operate our businesses at a regional level. We believe this approach provides us with a unique understanding of the cultures and product requirements in each of the geographic markets in which we operate, bringing added value to our customers. Our ingredients are used by customers in the food, beverage, brewing, and animal feed industries, among others.

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Our growth strategy is centered on delivering value-added ingredient solutions for our customers. The foundation of our strategy is operating excellence, which includes our focus on safety, quality and continuous improvement. We see growth opportunities in three areas: first, we are working to expand our current business through organic growth; second, we are focused on broadening our ingredient portfolio with on-trend products through internal and external business development; finally, we look for growth from geographic expansion as we pursue extension of our reach to new locations. The ultimate goal of these strategies and actions is to deliver increased shareholder value.

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Critical success factors in our business include managing our significant manufacturing costs, including costs for corn, other raw materials, and utilities. In addition, due to our global operations we are exposed to fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates. We use derivative financial instruments, when appropriate, for the purpose of minimizing the risks and costs associated with fluctuations in certain raw material and energy costs, foreign exchange rates, and interest rates. Also, the capital intensive nature of our business requires that we generate significant cash flow over time in order to selectively reinvest in our operations and grow organically, as well as through strategic acquisitions and alliances. We utilize certain key financial metrics relating to return on invested capital and financial leverage to monitor our progress toward achieving our strategic business objectives (see section entitled “Key Financial Performance Metrics”).

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The financial results of 2019 for operating income, net income and diluted earnings per common share declined from 2018.  Operating income declined in 2019 from 2018 primarily due to lower operating results in all segments.  The main drivers of the operating income decline were commodity margin pressures, higher production and supply chain costs, and unfavorable currency translation.    

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In July 2018, we announced a $125 million savings target for our Cost Smart program, designed to improve profitability, further streamline our global business, and deliver increased value to shareholders. We set Cost Smart savings targets to include an anticipated $75 million in cost of sales savings, including freight, and $50 million in anticipated SG&A savings by year end 2021.

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Our Cost Smart program and other initiatives resulted in restructuring charges in 2019.  During the year ended December 31, 2019, we recorded $57 million of pre-tax restructuring charges.  We recorded $29 million for our Cost Smart Cost of sales program. We recorded $15 million of restructuring charges in relation to the closure of the Lane Cove, Australia production facility, consisting of $10 million of accelerated depreciation, $4 million of employee-related severance, and $1 million of other costs. We expect to incur additional expense of $10 million to $12 million in 2020 in relation to the closure, excluding potential proceeds from the sale of land and equipment. Additionally, during the year ended December 31, 2019, we recorded $3 million of employee-related expenses primarily related to the South America operations restructuring.  Finally, we recorded $11 million of other costs, including professional services, during the year ended December 31, 2019, primarily in North America including other costs of $2 million in relation to the prior year cessation of wet-milling at the Stockton, California plant.  We do not expect to incur any additional costs in relation to the cessation of wet-milling at the Stockton, California plant.  We recorded pre-tax restructuring charges of $28 million for the year ended December 31, 2019 for the Cost Smart SG&A program. These costs include $15 million, of other costs, including professional services, and $13 million of employee-related severance for the year ended December 31, 2019. These charges were recorded primarily in the Company’s North America and South America operations, and include $2 million of other costs associated with the Finance Transformation initiative in Latin America for the year ended December

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31, 2019. The Company expects to continue to incur additional charges in 2020 related to the Cost Smart SG&A program, however, it does not expect to incur any additional restructuring costs related to its Finance Transformation initiative.

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Our cash provided by operating activities decreased to $680 million for the year ended December 31, 2019, from $703 million in the prior year primarily due to lower current year net earnings.  Our cash used for financing activities decreased during the year ended December 31, 2019, compared to the prior year, primarily due to the repurchase of 5.8 million shares of our outstanding common stock in 2018 offset by our debt repayments in 2019.

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As previously announced on October 15, 2019 and November 19, 2019, we detected suspicious activity affecting several servers within certain data centers on our network. Immediately, we took steps to identify and contain the situation, which included engaging a third-party consultant. We assessed the impact of the incident and did not identify any impact to our financial reporting systems nor any material impacts to our Key Financial Performance Metrics discussed below.  We incurred immaterial costs to perform these necessary remediation efforts during the three months ended December 31, 2019.  We are not aware of any evidence that any customer, supplier, or employee data has been improperly accessed, misused or transferred by any third party.  The remediation work related to this incident was completed in December 2019.            

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We currently expect that our available cash balances, future cash flow from operations, access to debt markets, and borrowing capacity under our credit facilities will provide us with sufficient liquidity to fund our anticipated capital expenditures, dividends, and other investing and financing activities for the foreseeable future. Our future cash flow needs will depend on many factors, including our rate of revenue growth, the timing and extent of our expansion into new markets, the timing of introductions of new products, potential acquisitions of complementary businesses and technologies, continuing market acceptance of our new products, and general economic and market conditions. We may need to raise additional capital or incur indebtedness to fund our needs for less predictable strategic initiatives, such as acquisitions.

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Results of Operations

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We have significant operations in four reporting segments: North America, South America, Asia-Pacific and EMEA. For most of our foreign subsidiaries, the local foreign currency is the functional currency. Accordingly, revenues and expenses denominated in the functional currencies of these subsidiaries are translated into U.S. dollars at the applicable average exchange rates for the period. Fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates affect the U.S. dollar amounts of our foreign subsidiaries’ revenues and expenses.  In the second quarter of 2018, the Argentine peso rapidly devalued relative to the U.S. dollar, which along with increased inflation, resulted in a three-year cumulative inflation in that country which exceeded 100 percent as of June 30, 2018.  As a result, we adopted highly inflationary accounting as of July 1, 2018, for our Argentina affiliate in accordance with U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (“GAAP”).  Under highly inflationary accounting, our affiliate’s functional currency becomes the U.S. dollar, and its income statement and balance sheet will be measured in U.S. dollars using both current and historical rates of exchange.  The effect of changes in exchange rates on Argentine peso-denominated monetary assets and liabilities will be reflected in earnings in Financing costs.  The impact of all foreign currency exchange rate changes, where significant, is provided below.

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We acquired Western Polymer LLC (“Western Polymer”) and Sun Flour Industry Co., Ltd. (“Sun Flour”) on March 1, 2019, and March 9, 2017, respectively. The results of the acquired businesses are included in our consolidated financial results from the respective acquisition dates forward. While we identify fluctuations due to the acquisitions, our discussion below also addresses results of operations excluding the impact of the acquisitions and the results of the acquired businesses, where appropriate, to provide a more comparable and meaningful analysis.

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2019 Compared to 2018 – Consolidated

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Net Income attributable to Ingredion. Net income attributable to Ingredion for 2019 decreased to $413 million from $443 million in 2018. Our results for 2019 included $35 million of one-time after-tax net costs, driven primarily by after-tax restructuring costs of $44 million. The restructuring charges consist of costs associated with our Cost Smart Cost of sales program and our Cost Smart SG&A program (see Note 5 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information).  

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Our results for 2018 included $54 million of one-time after-tax net costs, driven primarily by after-tax restructuring costs of $51 million. The restructuring charges consist of costs associated with our Cost Smart Cost of sales program in relation to the cessation of wet-milling at the Stockton, California plant, costs related to the Cost Smart SG&A program, including employee-related severance and other costs for restructuring projects in the South America, Asia-Pacific, and North America segments, costs related to the Latin America and North America Finance Transformation initiatives, and costs related to the cessation of our leaf extraction process in Brazil. During the year ended December 31, 2018, we adjusted our provisional amounts related to enactment of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act ("TCJA") and recognized an incremental $3 million of tax expense related to the TCJA.

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Net sales. Net sales were slightly down for the year ended December 31, 2019 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2018. Changes in foreign currency exchange rates and volume reduction due to the cessation of Stockton wet milling were partially offset by favorable price/product mix.

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Cost of sales. Cost of sales for year ended December 31, 2019 were flat when compared to the year ended December 31, 2018 primarily due to higher net corn costs.  Our gross profit margin was 21 percent and 22 percent for the years ended December 31, 2019, and 2018, respectively.  The gross profit margin decrease primarily reflected higher raw material costs.  

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Operating expenses. Operating expenses were flat when comparing the year ended December 31, 2019, to the year ended December 31, 2018.  This was primarily driven by lower selling costs, offset by higher general administrative costs.  Operating expenses, as a percentage of gross profit, were 46 percent for the year ended December 31, 2019, as compared to 45 percent for the year ended December 31, 2018.

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Other income, net. Our change in other income, net for the year ended December 31, 2019, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2018, was as follows:

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In January 2019, the Company’s Brazilian subsidiary received a favorable decision from the Federal Court of Appeals in Sao Paulo, Brazil, related to certain indirect taxes collected in prior years.  As a result of the decision, the Company expects to be entitled to indirect tax credits against its Brazilian federal tax payments in 2020 and future years.  The Company finalized its calculation of the amount of the credits and interest due from the favorable decision, concluding that the Company could be entitled to approximately $86 million of credits spanning a period from 2005 to 2018.  The Department of Federal Revenue of Brazil, however, issued an Internal Ruling in which it charged that the Company is entitled to only $22 million of the calculated indirect tax credits and interest for the period from 2005 to 2014.  The Brazil National Treasury has filed a motion for clarification with the Brazilian Supreme Court, asking the Court, among other things, to modify the lower court’s decision to approve the Internal Ruling, which could impact the decision in favor of the Company.  Due to the uncertainty arising from the issuance of the Internal Ruling, the Company recorded $22 million of credits in 2019 in accordance with ASC 450, Contingencies.  The $22 million of future tax credits, which was recorded in the Consolidated Income Statement in Other income, resulted in additional deferred income taxes of $8 million.  The income taxes will be paid as and when the tax credits are utilized.  The Company continues to monitor the pending decisions within the Brazilian courts that may result in changes to the calculations and the timing of the recording of any additional gains and receipt of the benefits.  

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Financing costs, net. Our financing costs, net for the year ended December 31, 2019 decreased $5 million from the year ended December 31, 2018, driven by a reduction in foreign currency losses, partly offset by higher interest expense.  

Provision for income taxes. Our effective income tax rates for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2018 were 27.1 percent and 26.9 percent, respectively.

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The increase in the effective tax rate was primarily driven by a reduction in the excess tax benefit related to share-based payment awards.  This was offset by the revaluation of the Mexican Peso versus the U.S. dollar which impacted the U.S. dollar denominated balances held in Mexico compared to the devaluation of the Mexican Peso versus the U.S. dollar, in the prior year.  Additionally, the effective tax rate was reduced from the prior year due to relatively lower valuation allowances on Argentine net operating losses.

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Net income attributable to non-controlling interests. Net income attributable to non-controlling interests for the year ended December 31, 2019, was flat when compared to the year ended December 31, 2018.

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2019 Compared to 2018 – North America

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Net sales. Our decrease in net sales of 1 percent for the year ended December 31, 2019, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2018, was driven by a 2 percent decrease in volume, offset by a 1 percent improvement in price/product mix.

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Operating income. Our operating income decreased $23 million for the year ended December 31, 2019, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2018, due to higher net cost of corn and production costs, which were partially offset by favorable pricing.

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2019 Compared to 2018 – South America

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Net sales.  Our decrease in net sales of 3 percent for the year ended December 31, 2019, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2018, was driven by currency devaluations of 20 percent in Argentina and Brazil, partly offset by a 15 percent increase in price/product mix and 2 percent increase in volume.

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Operating income. Our decrease in operating income of $3 million for the year ended December 31, 2019, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2018, was primarily driven by foreign exchange impacts and higher net corn costs, which were partially offset by favorable pricing actions.

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2019 Compared to 2018 – Asia-Pacific